Chapter twelve

Chapter twelve: Developing Your Argument

Chapter twelve of the Bedford Researcher indicates the two key questions in regard to developing the argument are how to support a thesis statement and how to assess the integrity of the argument.

In order to have a good argument, the writer must find compelling reasons to support the thesis, evidence to support the reasoning and how to appeal to readers. An effective argument is the one that takes into account the writer’s purpose and role as well as reader’s interests.

Document type determines the type of reasons that writers use to guide readers to accept their argument, whether it is a reflective document - blog post and an academic essay, information documents - reports, essays and articles in newspapers, or analytical documents – i.e. in the New York Times and others. To meet the expectations of readers, the writer generally should be well acquainted with the type of documents and his readers - what and how much they know about the issue, and what they want to learn more from it; moreover, help them to understand more about the issue.

            The next step in supporting the thesis is valid evidence that includes details, facts, personal observations and expert opinions. The writer can collect evidence from the published sources of information or their own interviews and observations.

            Appealing to the audience is an important consideration for the writer when developing an argument. The writer can rely on an appeal to authority, emotion, principles, values and beliefs, character or to logic in order for his readers to accept his argument. Appeal to authority is a call on experts, leaders or people who were affected by an issue. Appeal to emotion is a call for a response on an emotional level leading readers to view an issue in a specific way. Appeal to principles, values and beliefs are a call to a set of mores held dear by the readers. Appeals to Character call on a “trust me” strategy to i.e. politicians, celebrities, people of science etc. Appeal to Logic is a call on the logical presentation of evidence supporting the considered conclusion.

The second key question in regard to developing an argument is how to assess the integrity of the writer’s argument. To ensure the integrity of the argument, the writer has to be introduced with common logical fallacies, so his writing doesn’t fall under them. Fallacies can be deceptive and the readers who recognize i.e. errors in logic or the use of inappropriate emotional appeals are likely to refute that type of argument. There are four categories of general fallacies:  fallacies based on distraction – a red herring, ad hominem attacks, irrelevant history; fallacies based on questionable assumptions - sweeping generalizations, straw-man attacks, citing inappropriate authorities, jumping on a bandwagon; fallacies based on misrepresentation – stacking the deck, base-rate fallacies, questionable analogies; fallacies based on careless reasoning – post hoc fallacies, slippery slope arguments, either/or arguments, non sequiturs, circular reasoning.

Chapter eleven

Chapter Eleven: Developing Your Thesis Statement

This chapter focuses on two main ideas, one, how to use the resources and position statement and second, how to draft the thesis statement.

When considering the use of the resources and the position statement, it is important first to review the position statement that was made as an answer to the research question. If the writer hasn’t made a position statement he or she should do it now.

When reviewing the notes it is important to identify information, ideas and arguments. It is important to consider if the information advances your personal and academic interests. Also, reflect on your own ideas on the topic and if they can improve your argument.

Reviewing the notes helps the writer to understand more about the issue. Considering the writers purpose and role is important as it can change during the project.

Likewise consider what readers needs are and if the main point is in line with the reader’s needs or concerns.

When drafting the thesis statement it is useful to identify important information, ideas and arguments. As the writer reviews the material he or she should look for key words and phrases that will help discover if they are aligned with the research question.

The writer can write several drafts to develop an effective thesis statement depending on what the writer is asking the reader to do. The writer can ask the reader to learn something, change their attitude, or take action.

The thesis statement will determine the type of document the author intends to write and will be argumentative, informative or opinionated.

`Focusing the thesis statement will help the readers either learn, change their attitude or take action and have their questions and counterarguments anticipated.

Chapter ten

                         Chapter Ten: Searching for Information with Field Research Methods

This chapter is explaining how to get information from five research methods i.e. interviews, observations, surveys, correspondence and from the media.

Field research is another way to collect information and learn about the issue. There are certain situations that predispose the use of this method i.e. to gain a new perspective, if the issue is considered settled, the line of argument was never presented before and if you think it would be strengthen by including first hand reports.

When doing an interview there are many considerations: the interview must be planned, who to interview, what to ask, how to conduct the interview, how to record the interview, and lastly analyzing the results. Analysis of the interview is basically being critical of the source in order to find new information, ideas and arguments, check for consistency, if points are relevant, check if the person you interviewed is credible and anything that would provide context to the issue.

Observation could be used to get valuable first hand information about an issue. Observation should be planned. Considerations include what should be observed and how often, what to look for, and whether or not permission is needed. Again the results must be analyzed.

Surveys are useful to answer what or who questions, but not why or how questions. Surveys also must be planned. Considerations for surveys include whom to survey, what to ask, how to ask it, whether questions are clear, and how to distribute the surveys. Analyzing the survey is also important. It is crucial to keep survey short i.e. under one page, a 60 % response rate is acceptable. Maintaining confidentiality is important.

Correspondence is another example of a field research method. It includes textual communication such as letters, faxes, e-mail and social media. Good manners are important when doing correspondence.  They can be used from variety of people from eye witnesses to experts.

The media is a useful source for information. The same principal for this method is to take notes, request transcripts, record audio or visual, view information critically and cite the sources.

Chapter seven

Chapter Seven: Avoiding Plagiarism

Chapter seven of the Bedford Researcher is about how to recognize plagiarism, research ethics, common knowledge, fair use and asking permission, avoiding plagiarism and what to do if you are accused of plagiarism.

Plagiarism simply said is stealing another’s words or ideas. It can be intentional and unintentional. Plagiarism in a group project is tricky because of all the questions that come up about who will get credit for what.

Research ethics obligates the writer to acknowledge the sources, fairly discuss the information and provide citations for sources used.

Common knowledge doesn’t need to be cited for example, everybody knows that Vuk Karadzic streamlined Serbian literacy somewhere in 1850’s.

Fair use says via “the Copyright Act of 1976 that writers can use materials for purposes of criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research.” In short, you don’t need permission. On the other hand if you are going to publish your work, you need to ask for permission if the quote is really long or substantial.

There are five research skills which help the writer avoid plagiarism clearly mentioned in the Bedford Researcher Section 7e. They are as follows:

·         Conduct a knowledge inventory

·         Take notes carefully

·         Distinguish between your ideas and those drawn from your sources

·         Cite sources in the text and in the works cited list

·         Recognize misconceptions about intentional plagiarism

If accused of plagiarism the writer should be able to identify problems and give proof through the process of identifying suspicious parts of the text, to provide all the materials used for writing and planning. Most important is that during the meeting with the instructor to listen, take notes and reply clearly.