Chapter seventeen

Chapter Seventeen: Revising and Editing

                In chapter seventeen of the Bedford Researcher, the key questions are regarding the revision and editing of the document. The text indicates that although revising and editing are related they are quite different.

Considering the writing situation is primary in revising. Reviewing the purpose of the document is a good place to start. Also considering the reader’s needs, interests, values, beliefs and knowledge of the issues is important. The requirements of the writing, limitations and opportunities are crucial.

The writer should ask how well the argument and ideas are conveyed to the readers, i.e is it compatible with the needs, interest, values and beliefs of the readers and help them accept and understand the writer’s point.

The writer should concern himself with how source information was used. Was the source information enough? Was it appropriate to support the purpose and the reader’s needs? In addition, proper credit should be given to the source for words and ideas in the form of quotes and citations.

The reader should be able to locate information and ideas easily as well as follow the writer’s structure and organization of the document. It should be easy to read. Long paragraphs can be broken up and transitions added. Small paragraphs can be grouped with similar ideas. Effective conclusions are more than a document summary.

Considering the genre of the document as well as the design principles and elements, they should be consistent with readers’ expectations, i.e. level of formality, accepted sources, and organization. The design of the document is also important i.e. the MLA style formatting requirements; Web sites have their own considerations.

To improve the document there are several revision strategies. Making several drafts and saving drafts before each major revision ensures information won’t be lost if the new draft is not acceptable. As revision takes place, it is important that the thesis statement is well developed and the evidence is in good position to support it.  

While revising challenge the main idea, reasoning and evidence by reading the document through the reader’s eyes, playing devil’s advocate, and playing the “so what” game.

Reviewing the structure and organization of the document to see if it is appropriate given the purpose, readers, argument, and sources.

Getting feedback on the document can be very helpful to better organize the document so readers are not confused. The writer can get feedback from a friend, colleague etc.

The next question deals with editing. Editing focuses on the words and sentences of the document. Effective editing takes place only after revision is complete. It is always important to check facts and figures, quotes, and spelling of every name.

Editing for economy involves reducing the number of words in order to be more to - the - point and help readers to understand.

When editing presenting the information in a consistent way can be done by use of several techniques i.e. the consistent use of concepts, numbers, sources and formatting.

The readers will judge the document, so it is important to use the right words, active and passive voice, consistent point of view, rewriting complex sentences, vary length and sentence structure, use transitions, and avoid excessive language.

Use good spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Strategies to edit the document include, setting aside the document before editing, pausing between sentences for a quick check, reading aloud, and reading in reverse order.

Another strategy used for editing is to use a highlighter or highlighter tool in the word processor to mark errors, inconsistences or other problems.

The writer should use the spell checker programs with caution because they have limitations.

Ask for feedback. It can be difficult to note problems with a document the writer wrote himself so feedback is recommended.

 

 

 

Chapter fourteen

Chapter fourteen: Drafting

Chapter 14 talks about the process of creating a draft. It is divided into five questions.

The first question deals with the use of an outline to draft a document whether the draft is formal or informal. The formal draft for instance can use main points in the outline to form topic sentences for a paragraph and also use sub points to form supporting sentences.

The second question deals with the elements of an effective draft including a focus on the central idea, organized pattern, use of details, integrated information and transitions between paragraphs.

Each paragraph should have a central idea (the main argument, observation or question) in the form of topic sentence. The rest of the sentences are concentrated on the broader topic display.

Paragraphs should follow an organized pattern such as chronology, description, definition, cause/effect, process explanation, pro/con, multiple perspectives, comparison/contrast, strengths/weaknesses, costs/benefits and problem/solution in order to present the  information in the order the reader anticipates; this will help the reader to focus better on ideas and arguments.

The use of details in paragraphs is very important. Details provide better and more concrete understanding of the issue.

The writer uses information from sources to gain more strength for his argument and expand on the central idea by use of quotations, paraphrases and summaries.

Transitions are words and phrases used within and between paragraphs and they link information and ideas.  They can help readers i.e. follow a sequence: furthermore, in addition; to contrast: however, although; to introduce a conclusion: as a result, for this reason etc.  It is always best to refer to previously introduced information and ideas and then to introduce new information and ideas at the end of a sentence.

The third question in composing the draft is in what way the writer should frame the introduction. By framing the introduction the writer can highlight specific situations, particular questions and convey a chosen set of details to lead the readers to view his argument in a particular way.

The writer can use different strategies to write the introduction. To state a topic is one of them, and means to bring up the issue the writer is focusing on. Another strategy would be to establish the context which is basically providing background information about the subject. An alternate approach is stating the thesis. Defining a problem is another strategy for the introduction, where the author proposes a solution to a problem or defines the problem. The surprise statement method implies providing new or unusual information about the issue. Asking a question is another strategy that will involve readers into the conversation. Another approach is to tell a story and make the point. The historical account strategy provides the reader with historical background. Draw a contrast is a method of comparing and contrasting a topic to invite the reader into the conversation. Lastly, the method of leading with a quotation lends credibility to the writer’s topic.

The fourth question is how to make the document easy to follow. The document that is well organized and designed will help the readers move smoothly through its content. The strategies of this style are providing maps, use of headings and subheadings, providing forecasts and cross-references as well as use of the menu and design principles.

The fifth question is about drafting the conclusion. The conclusion is used to reinforce the main points for the readers. There are several strategies to choose from such as offer additional analysis, speculate about the future, close with a quote, or a story, or a question. Furthermore, the writer can call the reader to action. Lastly the conclusion can link to the introduction by mirroring the elements used in the introduction or expanding the ideas of the introduction.

 

Chapter eighteen

Chapter Eighteen: Understanding Design Principles

This chapter of the Beford Researcher is about understanding the principles of design. This consists of two key questions, first how to use design effectively, second what design elements can be used.

The most important consideration in design is how it will express the arguments clearly, achieve the purpose and meet the reader’s expectations.

Design principles such as balance, emphasis, repetition, and consistency have specific uses. The design can be balanced or unbalanced each for a specific purpose i.e. stability or movement. Emphasis is the placement and formatting of elements like headings in order to arrest attention. Repetition can help establish a sense of identity throughout the document. Consistency is the extent to which pages are designed similarly from page to page and aid the reader in finding information quickly and convey a sense of professionalism and credibility.  Two related principles are simplicity and moderation.  The writer should shoot of a simple yet effective design.

Design decisions should match with the writer’s purpose. A well designed document helps readers locate info, ideas, and the overall functioning of the document.

Writing with design conventions in mind will help reach the readers.  Writing in genre includes various kinds of design principles that the reader may expect. Genres have distinctive writing styles, patterns and distinctive types of design.

Elements of design include fonts, line spacing, and alignment; page layout strategies; color, shading, borders, and rules; and illustrations. Illustrations include photographs and other images, charts and graphs, as well as tables and digital illustrations. The writer should follow some guidelines when working with these elements. For example, guidelines for illustration use include, using an illustration for a purpose, place an illustration near the text it illustrates, and include a title or caption that explains the illustration. The style being used will give recommendations on placement and format of titles and captions.

Chapter fifteen

Chapter fifteen: Using Sources Effectively

Chapter 15 of the Bedford Researcher is about how to use sources effectively to accomplish purposes as a writer. This means to induce the reader to consider the specific way the writer has approached the issue.

Sources need to bring to the reader the writer's ideas, to serve as contrasts to the writer’s position with those of others’, to provide evidence for the key points, define concepts, to illustrate processes, to clarify statements, set a mood and qualify and strengthen the writer’s point.  These are the most effective ways to use the information, ideas and arguments from the sources to advance the written conversation about an issue. The information can be presented in several forms such as a quotation, paraphrase, summary, numerical information and also as illustrations such as images, audio, video, and animations.

Depending on the point to be proved, some sources may be more important than others because they support the evidence better. Carefully selected sources can significantly help to achieve a direct point.

Quotation, paraphrase or summary as a way used to display ideas and arguments to the readers attracts reader’s attention to particular aspects of the writer’s argument.

Source information is great to point out the nature and intensity of disagreements.  For a need to present complex ideas more concisely, the writer should use paraphrase and summary.

Finding evidence to substantiate certain claims of the position will affect the overall acceptance of the writer's argument.  

Aligning an argument with an authority such as experts and scholars will give credibility to the author's writing. Usually it is in the form of a quotation, paraphrase or source summary.

Writers use sources of information to define the concept, illustrate a process, or clarify a statement i.e. to define concept – by quoting or paraphrasing, to clarify statement-by providing examples, amplify or qualifying a statement.

Using an illustration or a striking quote can help the writer set the mood.

An example is concrete evidence for the document and its position.

Amplifying a point makes it broader and more general ,while qualifying a point makes it more specific and less likely to be misunderstood.

When integrating sources, identifying the sources is very useful. It fulfills the writer’s obligation to credit ideas and words and can strengthen the argument by identifying quoted experts.  So, in-text citations and attributions are critical.

Providing a clear context for the source information is important and shows how the source is reliable. This is done by identifying the sources credentials and how it relates to the writer’s main idea.

Quoting strategically means picking a choice quote to have a real impact on the reader.  They can be brief, partial and extended.  Quotes can be modified as appropriate to fit the text.  Of course quotes must be correctly punctuated.

Paraphrasing is putting in your own words, passages from the sources. They can be as long as the original text and can be used to prove a point and even to illustrate another’s ideas on an issue. Paraphrases should be accurate and fair.

Summaries are integrated into the draft. Summaries need to be accurate, fair and useful in supporting the argument.  In addition, cite the source of a summary. The writer can summarize part or all of a source and even a group of sources to support the argument.

Numerical information can be presented with in sentences or by way of tables, charts or graphs.  They need to be accurately cited and presented.

Images, audio, video and animations in an electronic document and in print can be helpful in making an impact on the reader. In an academic essay permission may not be needed to use the media. When publishing and distributing, permission would be needed.  Such sources need to be properly cited.

The most common documentation systems  are MLA in the humanities, APA in social sciences, Chicago in history, journalism and the humanities, and CSE in life sciences.  The writer chooses the style most in line with the project.

In text citation format will depend on the style chosen for the project.  The in text citations are associated with the list of sources or works cited page.

The document should be checked for unattributed sources. The writer should make a list of each source referred to in the document.

The writer should clearly distinguish between their ideas and the ideas of others i.e. the sources. Credit the sources for their ideas using attribution or quote.

Chapter sixteen

Chapter sixteen:Writing with Style

Chapter sixteen of the Bedford Researcher indicates the two key questions important in creating style of writing.

The first key question in regard to how to begin to write with style includes four segments: how to write concisely, use active and passive voice, adopt a consist point of view and choose words carefully.

Short sentences are almost always a good choice in order to write clear and concise. For clearer writing, it is important to remove unnecessary modifiers such as there are, there is, these have, these are etc.  Second, also important is to remove un-useful introductory language such as – as matter of fact instead of using – in fact. Third is eliminating stock phrases such as – at all times instead of using the word always, makes writing more clear and concise.

Use of active and passive voice is an equally important tool in creating style of writing. If used effectively and carefully applied to a specific writer’s purpose - i.e. to emphasize the recipient of the action (passive voice), it can make a big difference in understanding and provide a reader with more information.

Adopting a consistent point of view implies a smooth shift within a sentence, so the sentence remains written in the same person – first or third.

Choosing words carefully determines the level of formality in writing. The level of formality can be built on the insights gained in reading other documents that address the same issue. The level of formality also varies depending on the document type; written conversations on blogs and web discussions are usually informal conversations while written conversations in scholarly journals or respective magazines use more formal and restrictive tone of writing. 

The use of specialized language makes sense only when both parties are familiar with the terms. If the writer is not familiar with the specific terminology, it is recommended to get familiar in order to establish good communication with the reader.

Variety of writing in document is a key of effective document. Although fully supported by the argument, the document can be tedious to read; the variety of writing in documents is necessary, by using different choice of words.

The next key question relates to how to polish writing style. It implies variation in sentence structure through mixture of different types, structures, and lengths of a sentences.

It is also important how to create effective transitions within sentences, paragraphs, and even sections of a document. The transition involves a soft transition in writing, which means easier understanding of the connection between information, ideas and arguments in the text. Transition occurs in the form of words and phrases such as, however – for transition words, as a result – for transitional phrases, and as transitional sentences and transitional paragraphs.

Introducing other authors effectively includes use of attributions in order to make the sources of the information, ideas, and arguments stand out.

In order not to leave the reader with the wrong impression, the writer should pay more attention to the correct use or not to use gender-specific pronouns i.e. representatives of particular professions. The solution is to reshape the sentence, so that generic references, such as a doctor, are plural, such as doctors.

Sometimes it is necessary for the writer to use a good hand book with examples and strategies to improve writing style.

As a last element of polishing strategy is reading widely, and frequently; it exposes writers to different styles and engages them more with words.

Chapter twelve

Chapter twelve: Developing Your Argument

Chapter twelve of the Bedford Researcher indicates the two key questions in regard to developing the argument are how to support a thesis statement and how to assess the integrity of the argument.

In order to have a good argument, the writer must find compelling reasons to support the thesis, evidence to support the reasoning and how to appeal to readers. An effective argument is the one that takes into account the writer’s purpose and role as well as reader’s interests.

Document type determines the type of reasons that writers use to guide readers to accept their argument, whether it is a reflective document - blog post and an academic essay, information documents - reports, essays and articles in newspapers, or analytical documents – i.e. in the New York Times and others. To meet the expectations of readers, the writer generally should be well acquainted with the type of documents and his readers - what and how much they know about the issue, and what they want to learn more from it; moreover, help them to understand more about the issue.

            The next step in supporting the thesis is valid evidence that includes details, facts, personal observations and expert opinions. The writer can collect evidence from the published sources of information or their own interviews and observations.

            Appealing to the audience is an important consideration for the writer when developing an argument. The writer can rely on an appeal to authority, emotion, principles, values and beliefs, character or to logic in order for his readers to accept his argument. Appeal to authority is a call on experts, leaders or people who were affected by an issue. Appeal to emotion is a call for a response on an emotional level leading readers to view an issue in a specific way. Appeal to principles, values and beliefs are a call to a set of mores held dear by the readers. Appeals to Character call on a “trust me” strategy to i.e. politicians, celebrities, people of science etc. Appeal to Logic is a call on the logical presentation of evidence supporting the considered conclusion.

The second key question in regard to developing an argument is how to assess the integrity of the writer’s argument. To ensure the integrity of the argument, the writer has to be introduced with common logical fallacies, so his writing doesn’t fall under them. Fallacies can be deceptive and the readers who recognize i.e. errors in logic or the use of inappropriate emotional appeals are likely to refute that type of argument. There are four categories of general fallacies:  fallacies based on distraction – a red herring, ad hominem attacks, irrelevant history; fallacies based on questionable assumptions - sweeping generalizations, straw-man attacks, citing inappropriate authorities, jumping on a bandwagon; fallacies based on misrepresentation – stacking the deck, base-rate fallacies, questionable analogies; fallacies based on careless reasoning – post hoc fallacies, slippery slope arguments, either/or arguments, non sequiturs, circular reasoning.